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MAMMALOGIST
Mammalogy is the branch of biology that
deals with the study of mammals. It encompasses such diverse areas
as the structure, function, evolutionary history, ethology, taxonomy,
management and economics of mammals. Approximately 4,200 species
of living mammals and numerous extinct species comprise the material
for study. Included are egg-laying echidnas, the platypus, pouched
marsupials, tiny shrews, bats, mice, whales, apes and elephants,
to name only a few.
The study of mammals can be as diverse as the
organisms themselves. A mammalogist might study a wide variety
of topics on a particular species or group of mammals or might
take a comparative approach and investigate one aspect with regard
to a wide variety of mammals. The major subdivisions of the science
of mammalogy include the following:
Natural History: The study of
a species’ way of life, including
descriptions of the habitats in which it lives, the food it eats,
the predators that eat it, the stages of its maturation and reproduction
and its social structure.
Taxonomy and Systematics: The study of
the classification of mammals into distinct orders, families, genera,
species and subspecies, thereby defining the geographic distribution
of each taxon (a taxonomic category or group, such as a phylum, order,
family, genus or species). In addition, the evolutionary relationships
among extinct (paleontology) and/or living taxa are analyzed.
Anatomy
and Physiology: The study of mammalian body structures and
tissues and how each functions.
Ethology: The study of the behavior
of an animal and how those behaviors influence its survival and reproduction.
Ecology: The study of interactions
between mammals and their environments (nonliving and living). This
discipline includes the study of special adaptations to environmental
factors (physiological ecology) and the study of interactions within
and among species (population and community ecology).
Management and
Control: The interactions between humans and other mammals
in which humans manipulate either the environment or populations
of mammals to favor the use and/or survival of certain species and
to regulate or even reduce the populations of species whose activities
conflict with human interests.
Of course, individual studies in mammalogy
are not necessarily restricted to one of the above categories; many
studies combine aspects from two or more areas. In game management,
for example, the ecology and natural history of the species must
be understood, and in taxonomy anatomical features are used to discern
systematic relationships. In addition, mammalogists often collaborate
with scientists in other fields, such as ornithologists in studies
of predator-prey relationships between birds-of-prey and rodents
and botanists in studies of plant-herbivore interaction. Obviously,
becoming a mammalogist is not the only way to study mammals. In fact,
many scientists who study mammals would not consider themselves mammalogists
per se, but rather specialists in such fields as physiology or ethology
who happen to use mammals as the subjects in their research. A number
of employment opportunities exist for trained mammalogists and individuals
interested in working with mammals. Each job differs in its duties/responsibilities,
methodologies, perspectives, compensation and level of training required.
Some of the principal career opportunities for mammalogists are described
below.
Career Opportunities
Universities: Although few universities have departments of mammalogy,
most large universities employ professors who work with mammals,
either in the biology/zoology departments or in departments such
as ecology, evolution, behavior, physiology, anatomy, systematics
and wildlife management. University mammalogists typically are
involved heavily in research activities. The research program at
large universities is expected to be productive and of high quality,
because much of its funding must come from granting agencies outside
the university. Therefore, university mammalogists often direct
a staff of lab technicians, undergraduates and graduate students
in their laboratory.
Besides actually conducting research, the duties
of the university professor include maintaining quality control,
managing personnel, writing proposals for submission to granting
agencies and writing the results of the laboratory’s research, either as progress
reports or as manuscripts for publication. In addition, as a member
of an academic department, most university mammalogists are expected
to participate in the teaching and advising of undergraduate and
graduate students. Often a course in mammalogy is taught as well
as other courses within the professor’s area of specialization.
Participation in the general courses of the department such as general
zoology/biology and human anatomy/physiology might be required as
well. In virtually all cases, faculty positions at large universities
require a Ph.D., and many institutions prefer candidates to have
postdoctoral experience as well. Formal training in education is
not a prerequisite, but some teaching experience, at least as a graduate
teaching assistant in a laboratory course, usually is required. The
number of positions for mammalogists at major universities is limited,
and competition for these is keen. Nonetheless, each year well-trained,
productive candidates, often new Ph.D.’s, succeed in obtaining
such employment.
Colleges: The largest number of positions
for biologists studying mammals historically has been as vertebrate
biologists, teaching undergraduates and conducting limited research
in colleges and small universities. Doctoral programs usually are
not available at these institutions, but master’s degree programs
frequently are. College professors should be trained broadly in undergraduate
and graduate vertebrate courses, with support courses in morphology,
physiology, ecology, ethology, genetics and evolution. A Ph.D. usually
is required. Also, opportunities should be sought during graduate
training to teach a variety of introductory and advanced laboratory
courses in biology. Individuals interested in a college position
must be able to direct undergraduates in the classroom and on research
projects and should find such work rewarding and stimulating. In
contrast to the situation at a large university, mammalogists at
colleges and small universities typically devote more of their time
to teaching. The number of courses taught per year is greater, and
the importance of the quality of teaching in the assessment of overall
performance usually is greater. Although research programs may be
smaller and time commitments to research less at colleges and smaller
universities, the quality of research at these institutions still
is expected to be high.
Federal Government
Agencies: Many agencies within the federal government employ mammalogists,
including the Public Health Service, the National Park Service, the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Department of Agriculture, the
Army Corps of Engineers, the Food and Drug Administration, the Department
of Commerce and the Environmental Protection Agency. As expected,
the type of work within these agencies varies greatly. Within the
federal government, individuals who work with mammals are employed
as ecologists; general biologists; geneticists (developing breeding
methods and selection procedures for livestock and game mammals);
husbanders (studying breeding and feeding of livestock); physiologists;
range scientists (managing the use and preservation of rangeland
for both domestic and game mammals); wildlife biologists (determining
conservation and management practices for wild mammals); wildlife
refuge managers (operating game reserves and refuges) and zoologists.
In general, the educational requirements for these positions include
a minimum of a bachelor’s degree or the equivalent,
with at least 30 semester hours in biological sciences. These jobs
usually do not include teaching duties, and the selection of a specific
research project is done by administrators, often on the basis of
monetary impact or political considerations.
State Fish and Game Agencies: Educational requirements for a career with state fish and game agencies
are met best by the M.S. degree. Someone with a bachelor’s
degree and some field experience also is employable at the entry
level. Students should structure their coursework toward a degree
in biology or game and resource management. Undergraduate coursework
should include general and upper-level biology courses. A strong
background in communication skills such as writing and public speaking
is recommended. Areas of specialization that would increase the chances
of employment include some expertise in data analysis/statistics
and computer programming. A person can increase the probability of
obtaining a job in this field by participating in seasonal work programs.
Most state departments have these programs available to students,
usually during the summer months. Participation in these programs
strongly is advised for two reasons: They allow the student to obtain
a first-hand knowledge of the field and the type of work involved
and they allow the department to assess the individual for future
employment. These programs are particularly good for establishing
contacts within the field. Fieldwork and direct interaction with
wild mammals are the big draws for this type of employment, although
some positions deal more with the public than with wild mammals.
One major drawback is that employees often are not their own bosses.
As with federal positions, long-term goals may be dictated by state
and local political considerations and budgetary constraints.
Museums: A person receiving training in mammalogy might work in either a public
or university museum. There are several differences between these,
including the size of
the collection (large public museums often have more specimens than
university museums) and the responsibilities of curators. Along with
responsibilities for curation of the collection and research, a university
position usually includes teaching duties, such as a class in mammalogy
or vertebrate biology. In both situations, appointments are based
on an individual’s ability to meet the highest level of scholarly
achievement and to conduct and publish original research. A person
generally must have a Ph.D. or the equivalent in order to qualify
for such a position. However, some museums employ mammalogists without
doctoral degrees as curatorial assistants. The areas of specialization
generally are systematics, ecology and biogeography. Curatorial duties
include acquisition, preparation, identification, maintenance and
cataloging of specimens so materials are readily available to researchers.
Appointments are limited because there are few large, prestigious
museums and because most museum curatorial positions are with smaller
museums.
Zoos: There are several hundred zoo positions
nationally that are filled by individuals trained in mammalogy. However,
for college-educated biologists, the number of positions that open
annually is very small. The majority of zoo (and aquarium) positions
such as zookeepers require only a high school education, as practical,
on-the-job training is provided. For higher-level positions such
as curators and directors, a minimum of a bachelor’s degree
in biology or zoology usually is required, along with some management
experience. Generally, some practical experience also is required
for curatorial positions. Today, an increasing number of zoos are
using their captive animals as research subjects and are employing
mammalogists with bachelor’s degrees and advanced degrees.
Wildlife/Conservation
Organizations: Although more job opportunities for mammalogists
are found in education and government, a limited number of positions
are available with private wildlife or conservation organizations
such as the Nature Conservancy, the National Audubon Society and
the National Wildlife Federation. These organizations obtain and
maintain preserves and sanctuaries, interact with federal agencies,
sponsor programs and conduct research on endangered species and threatened
habitats. The types of positions available include basic research
scientists, lobbyists for wildlife legislation, administrators of
sanctuaries and preserves and directors of educational activities.
Beyond these generalizations, job descriptions and expectations vary
widely. A Ph.D. is required for research mammalogists involved in
gathering data for use in deciding strategies for management and
preservation of rare or endangered species. While there are many
other positions for which an undergraduate degree in biology is the
minimum requirement, postgraduate work enhances the chances for success
in a difficult job market. In addition to basic coursework in biology
(which could emphasize mammalogy), students interested in careers
with these organizations would be wise to seek experience in natural
resource management, use of computers, public speaking and semitechnical
writing. Short-term internships also are available to college students
in some of the larger environmental organizations. These positions
offer an educational experience as well as insight into the pros
and cons of a career with this type of organization. Students may
be assigned to work on preserves or sanctuaries or to assist regular
staff members in policy work. An internship with these organizations
substantially may improve the likelihood of future employment. Directories
to wildlife and conservation organizations often are available in
public libraries and should be consulted to gain an idea of the variety
of available employment opportunities.
Private Research Institutes/Private
Industry: In the private sector, many companies employ scientists
with training in mammalogy. These include the energy and lumber industries
as well as scientific supply/products companies. In addition, independent
research institutes and consulting firms contract with smaller companies,
government agencies and other entities to perform a similar function.
In either case, the research is applied rather than basic. The two
primary types of mammal studies undertaken in the private sector
are toxicology and field ecology. Toxicology studies the effects
of chemicals or pollutants on living systems. These studies are performed
primarily in the laboratory and require an expertise in anatomy and
physiology and a background in histology, chemistry and statistics.
Field ecology is field studies of mammalian ecology. These studies
usually are performed in the field, utilizing trapping and telemetry
techniques. Employment in research institutes and private industry
depends somewhat on the economy and how much of the budget is available
for research and development. Summer training for undergraduates
is available at some research institutes and is recommended to gain
experience and to make employment contacts.
Salary
Universities and Colleges: Salaries for
university professors range from $18,000 to $60,000 per year, depending
on experience. The salary range for a professor at a college or small
university often is lower than at large universities.
Federal Government
Agencies: Appointments start at the GS-9 level, or about $20,000
per year, with a bachelor’s degree. Scientists
with a Ph.D. may start at GS-12, or about $30,000 per year.
Museums: Salaries vary widely
depending on the institution. Mammalogists employed at university
museums often start at a salary of $16,000 to $20,000 per year, which
increases upon promotion to full professor or curator. Individuals
with such positions typically hold a joint appointment in an academic
department such as biology or zoology. Not all universities offer
tenure-track positions for curators. At large public and private
museums, starting salaries tend to be slightly higher, $23,000 per
year, and may increase to approximately $60,000 per year.
Zoos: For
higher-level positions such as curators and directors, the typical
salary is between $10,000 and $50,000 annually.
Private Research Institutes/Private
Industry: Generally, technicians are hired with a bachelor’s
degree, starting at about $12,000 per year. Scientists with advanced
degrees earn from $20,000 to over $40,000 annually.
Related Links
http://www.aibs.org/core/index.html
The American Institute of Biological Sciences is dedicated to advancing
biological research and education for the welfare of society. The
site has broad but useful description of careers in biology and discusses
what jobs biologists have, new directions in biological careers,
required education and training and life-science careers for the
future.
http://www.mammalsociety.org
The American Society of Mammalogists (ASM) was established in 1919
for the purpose of promoting the study of mammals. Most members
of ASM are professional scientists with a strong interest in the
public good, which is reflected in their involvement in providing
information for public policy, resources management, conservation
and education. There also is a list of current job opportunities
available in mammalogy.
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